The Beothuks

t the time of European expansion and settlement in Newfoundland, the Beothuks were the native inhabitants of the Island. The traditional pattern of life for these Aboriginals disintegrated with the advent of this influx of people, the Europeans and the Micmacs from Nova Scotia.

Although initial contacts between these people are recorded as being friendly, misunderstanding and suspicion increased to the point where actual killings occurred on both sides for real or imaginary injustices. Finally, starvation was added when the increasing numbers of Europeans unknowingly blocked the Beothuks access to the coast and to their traditional livelihood. By the early 1800's these people had disappeared as a distinct cultural group. Research on the Beothuks during the past decade has enabled a partial reconstruction of their culture, language and traditional pattern of life that this tragic historic period closed so quickly and forever.

The Beothuks were hunters and took full advantage of the abundant food resources on the Island. These food resources were available seasonally, either on the sea coast or the interior forests and barrens. Two major movements or migrations were made in a given year to these areas to hunt and gather their resources.

Spring and summer were spent on the coast hunting the seals, whales and other sea mammals that were extremely numerous during these seasons. The thousands of shore and seabirds, with their eggs, undoubtedly were another major resource while on the coast. With the arrival of fall the family groups, spread along the shoreline, moved inland, attracted by the caribou that were now herding together and migrating by the hundreds.

It is likely that the family groups coalesced for this caribou hunt and the maintenance of the "deer fences" that are reported to have stretched for miles. These fences funnelled the migrating herds into one area where they could be more easily speared. These animals provided skins for clothing and shelter, and meat for subsistence during the remaining winter. Small game such as beaver, fox and ptarmigan supplemented their food supply during these months.

With spring, there was a return to the coast and it's resources, which were again becoming available at this time. These movements were probably facilitated by the use of the large river systems such as the Exploits, Gander and Terra Nova. Structures for shelter at these coastal and interior hunting camps are partially known from early historic accounts and by archaeological excavations.

In the winter, shelter was provided by mamateeks". These conical structures consisted of a framework of straight poles meeting in the center, where a passage was left for smoke to escape. This was covered by layers of skin, birch bark and, in several reports, by sail cloth obtained from the Europeans. Finally, soil was banked against the mamateek along the outside, effectively sealing it against the elements.

At several archaeological sites this external banking of soil provided the outline of the mamateek and showed a multi-sided structure where the banking stretched from one frame pole to the next. One such excavation at Red Indian Lake revealed a six-sided mamateek measuring twenty-five feet by twenty feet. A large interior hearth provided warmth and cooking facilities during the winter months. Towards one end was a platform which may have served as a storage area. Around the hearth were several long depressions or hollows which served as an individual's sleeping area.

Another site on the Exploits River revealed a similar multi-sided mamateek. Around this winter lodging were several rock and bone mash concentrations. These rock concentrations may have been used for sweat baths, or simply a redeposition of rocks taken from the interior hearth of the mamateek. The bone mash results from the boiling of split caribou bones in order to extract the marrow and oil. Heat was provided by dumping red-hot granite cobbles into the water-filled vessel. Once the oil was skimmed from the top, the remaining rocks, bone mash and water were dumped aside to be discovered and interpreted by the archaeologists centuries later.

oastal structures are not described adequately in any of the historical records. The archaeological findings to date only partially clarify this lack of data. At one site, in Bonavista Bay, four circular depressions ranging from twelve to twenty-three feet in diameter were located. Again, it was the exterior banking of soil that provided an outline of the structure. In these cases they appear to be of a circular construction. The structural difference from interior sites may be due to the less severe climatic demands of a summer social grouping at this time of year.

Subsistence of this coastal site was primarily based on seals, including young harbour seals available in the spring. Also identified in the refuse bone concentration found outside one structure were sea duck, cormorant and black bear. These indicated that the Beothuks occupied this site through the summer and possibly early fall to obtain these various food resources.

At these interior and coastal habitation sites, items used in their everyday existence are usually found. Unfortunately because of the poor preservability of wood and bone tools in the soil over the centuries, the items so far uncovered consist entirely of stone artifacts. These are predominately spear and arrowheads reflecting their hunting activities. Some scrapers were also found and these served to prepare hides and skins for their eventual use as clothing, decoration and shelter. Actual examples of the highly perishable items only have been found in Beothuk burials. These have been preserved by having been smeared with a mixture of red ochre and grease which has acted as a natural preservative.

From the various Beothuk burials we have examples of leather clothing with frills; birch bark vessels, sometimes with decorative stitching and notched edges; pendants which are elaborately carved and incised bone and ivory pieces that stylistically are unique to these people; and in one burial a wooden carving representing a male Aboriginal. Occasionally, materials obtained from the European fishermen and settlers are also included alongside the body. These metal knives, nails, sword and clay pipes indicate that the Beothuks were in contact with the early French as well as English sailors.

Reconstruction of Beothuk religious beliefs remains highly speculative. Various ceremonies must have occurred to bring good hunting, successful childbirth or restoration of health. It is only in their mortuary practices, in the preparation and care given to the deceased, that we have tangible evidence of a spiritual belief.

eothuk burials, so far uncovered are almost exclusively located in coastal caves or rock shelters located along the numerous bays around the Island. In a few instances there are reports of there being stone-lined crypts within these caves and a birch canopy on poles above the burial. Red ochre is used lavishly over the body and bones and is symbolic to many cultures as a life-giving force. The items which are included besides the body are also covered with this ochre. These finely made pieces provide us with valuable artifacts of the Beothuk culture.

The physical remains in these burials do not clarify the often-mentioned lore that these Aboriginals were of great stature and height. To date, the numerous burials found by archaeologists have all been previously disturbed burials. The skeletons have been too scattered and fragmentary for proper analysis as to stature, age or sex. However, one notable exception is the fairly complete skeleton of a male Beothuk Aboriginal presently in the Newfoundland Museum collection. This represents an exceptional individual probably having been close to 6 feet in height.

However, both John Guy, who established the first English colony in Newfoundland in 1610 and Lieut. David Buchan R.N., who had numerous encounters with the Beothuks in the early 1800's, describe them differently. They are characterized by both these explorers as being of average height, light brown skin and dark hair and eyes. Buchan made further note of the fact that they smeared their bodies and clothing with red ochre and grease. This custom is mentioned in several historic accounts and appears to be the origin for calling the Beothuks the "Red Indians".

Two Beothuk women, Demasduit, or Mary March, and Shanawdithit, or Nancy, are well-known to Beothuk researchers. Both lived among the settlers in various communities and are the sources of invaluable information on items of Beothuk culture that had previously been unobtainable. Nancy, in particular, provided drawings illustrating various foods used and stored by her people, a winter welling or mamateek, and various mythological items. There are even drawings dealing with the encounters of her people with Europeans at Red Indian Lake.

Probably the most important items obtained independently from these women were the lists of words which form two vocabularies of their language. These remain critical clues in the identification of these people and are the basis for their linguistic Algonkian association. Indeed, the growing archaeological, enthological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Beothuk formed linguistically and culturally a part of the widely distributed Algonkian continuum presently spread across the maritime area of easter Canada.

he identification of their prehistoric cultural ancestors and time of their ultimate appearance in Newfoundland remains inconclusive. Archaeological investigators have revealed the prehistoric occupation of insular Newfoundland to consist of multiple occupations by several cultural groups. These included the earliest Maritime Archaic Indians, the Dorset Eskimos and finally those Aboriginals known during the recent European occupation as Beothuks.

There is a growing awareness of the possibility of their descending from the earliest Maritime Archaic Indians. If this is ultimately proven, the Beothuks would represent the historically known descendants of an Aboriginal group whose occupation of Newfoundland was continuous from its inception many thousands of years ago.